[A] - Censorinus published «De die native liber» AD 241. It is commonly thought that he has published it in AD 238, but in that case 3 consular years are missing beginning from the time of Velleius, in comparison with the Olympiads and the years AUC. He wrote: «If I don't mistake, this year of which an index and title is "of the consulship of V. C. Pius and Pontianus", is 1014th from the first Olympiad, beginning from the summer days in which the Olympic athletic contest is celebrated. From the Rome foundation, instead, it is 991st, in reality from the feasts of Pale, from which the years of the Urbs are counted. However it is the 283rd of the years called Julian, but from the day of the Calendae of January, from which Julius Caesar made to begin the years by him constituted». The Olympic year began on the 1st of July; but the year from the Rome foundation began on the 21st of April, still in the 1013th year of the Olympiads

Therefore we discover that the Foundation of Rome had conventionally been fixed by Marcus Terentius Varro (AUC 638 - 727) in the 6th Olympiad, 2nd year.

And, since Velleius makes to coincide AD 4 with AUC 754, the calculation of the Julian years would be started in BC 42, not in 45. But Censorinus connects this calculation to the consuls and he makes it begin from the 4th consulship of Julius Caesar: therefore it is for lack of 2 years. The first Julian year was BC 44.

(4)[B] - Velleius, if we refer to the eclipse after which Herod died and to the eclipse of moon after the death of Augustus, allows us to make to coincide AD 1 with AUC 701, because AD 4 was AUC 754.

Particularly, F. Josephus reports that Herod died after an eclipse of moon and before the following Passover. The succession of the facts asks for a few months of time, condition that realized only him after the eclipse of the 7-8th of January BC 1 (astronomic link to the Christian Era).

Then the Herod's sons went to Rome to resolve in front of August the matter of the will and Gaius Caesar adoptive son of the emperor  was present.

Augustus had admitted Gaius, together with his brother Lucius, to examine the public matters proposed to the emperor, only beginning from the year following his own 12th consulship (see below), or rather from AD 3 (Cassius Dio, Roman History, LV,9,9-10).

Gaius departed for the East, as Velleius says, during the 13th consulship of August, in late Spring, and he died later four years without more to make return to Rome.

So the 13th consulship of August took place in BC 1, come è spiegato in seguito.. In AD 1 Gaius Caesar himself was consul. In AD 2 he was consul P. Vinicius, before Gaius and Lucius Caesars died, at interval of 18 months. After their death, in AD 4, E. Cato and C. Senus were consuls and it was AUC 754. The 1st year of the Christian Era was AUC 751, between the 1st and the 2nd year of the 194th Olympiad.

(5)Herod have to be born in BC 70, and in BC 55 he was 15 years old.

(6) F. Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, XIV,73. Here the data don't get along. The 179th Olympiad should be correct, certainly reported by Nicolas of Damask, the consuls are less sure. There was not still the Julian year and the annual recurrences, to Rome, could be moved of two or three months in comparison to the course of the sun. If this year really coincided to that of consulship of Cicero one, it should be the one of birth of Augustus, that however now results to have been born in BC 62, not in the 179th Olympiad.

Besides Josephus has specified the month and the day and certainly, saying «in the 179th Olympiad», he intended to also specify the year, or rather that in which the Olympiad was celebrated. The year turns out to be BC 61.

F. Josepus wrote around AD 90. In Jewish Antiquities, talking about Herod and his time, used the reference to the Olympiads, because he certainly found it in the historical work of Nicolas of Damask, that has not reached us. Since he wrote in Rome, he wanted to also add the reference to the Roman consuls.

But, from when the facts had happened, the list of the consuls had been tampered with. One consular year had been added immediately after the 13th consulship of Augustus, because it has believed that he lived almost 76 years, one more than the real ones. This explains because Velleius seems to move ahead at least 1 year all the consuls BC.

Subsequently, during the empire of Tiberius, 3 consular years had gone lost.

Is it inferred by what?

1) Velleius places in AUC 754 the consuls Sextus Aelius Cato and Gaius Sentius Saturninus.

Censorinus places in AUC 991 the consuls Gaius Fulvius Pius and Pontius Proculus Ponzianus.

But, while 991 - 754 = 237 years, the consular years are only 234.

2) Tacitus (direct witnesses of the fact) and Dio show the same difference with respect to the celebration of the 800th AUC year. This happened under the consuls that we find in the list at AD 47. Departing, once more, from AUC 754 and from the consuls remembered by Velleius: 800 - 754 = 46. But the consular years are 43.  The two writers could still verify, in the Annalses of Rome, the correspondence bethween AUC years and consular years.

3) Velleius Paterculus, contemporary of Tiberius, testifies the consulship of M. Vinicius in AD 30, but Tacitus and Dio have avoided to appoint him. This shows that the two historians didn't succeed in inserting M. Vinicius to the correct place and that the consuls of the years following AD 34 (20th year of Tiberius) are moved, thin to reach the 3 year move within AD 40.

This has simply happened because Tiberius dismissed someone of them earlier than expected but, above all, he allowed to others to be reigning over the expiration (C. Dio, Roman History, LVIII,20).

Perhaps the idea that Tiberius had reigned 3 years together to Augustus has contributed to camouflage this error. In fact Augustus, in the last times of his life, continually appealed to Tiberius as if he was in power with him.

So Josephus had in the hands the list of the consuls BC all moved 2 years forward in comparison to the Olympiads and to the years AUC, while the consuls AD, until around AD 30, were moved 3 years before. Wanting, for instance, to point out the consuls of the 179th Olympiad (year 690 AUC), he met with the ones we find today in 688 AUC, corresponding to our BC 63.

He could not to realize it, because the consular, Olympic and AUC years regularly continued. But in the list of the consuls that 3 consular years miss between the period of Velleius and that of F. Josephus one.

All the Roman historians following the time of Tiberius, as Tacitus, Dio Cassius and Censorinus, were conditioned by these imbalances, since they counted every consulship as solar year; only Svetonius avoided references that appeared incompatible with the data found in the archives of Rome. When the reckoning of the years according to the Christian Era started, the reference to the foundation of Rome and to the Olympiads was dropped. For this the years AUC and the Olympiads appear to us moved back 3 years, if we hold as reference Velleius.

(7) Beda (this reference to Caesar is read in History, 1,2) wrote in the 8th century AD and his calculation introduces a two year difference in comparison to the calculation in the time of Velleius.

He connects to Dionisius Exsiguus.

He had established that the year 248th of Diocletianus were considered 532 from the birth of Our Lord Jesus Christ.

How did he proceed in the calculation?

Dionisius, for the birth of Jesus, has perhaps found a sure reference in the years of August and precisely in 41st, precedent his 13th consulship, according to the official list of the consuls.

This way he counted 532 consular and of the emperors years, returning back up to the year preceding the 13th consulate of August.

In the list of the consuls they missed in fact 3 consular years, that we today see taken by some additions preceding the year AD 284.

Jesus had been born on the 25 of December (the date had already been fixed by the Church), in the preceding year, under the consuls Gaius Calvisius Sabinus, Lucius Passienus Rufus (effective AD 3).

Bede wanted instead to also refer to the AUC years, and he considered them moved back of 2 unities (in comparison with Christian Era). Therefore he set the year AC 1 in AUC 752 and AD 1 in AUC 753. Then he counted from here the 30 years of Jesus in the 15th of Tiberius, getting that the years "lost" from Tiberius were only 2.

However Dionisius has proceeded, at the end all it takes is adding the 2 years (3 - 1) and he reaches BC 3-2 exact.

Dionisius have been the first one to refer to the birth of Jesus Christ dating the events. It began so the use to count the years according to the Christian Era.

(8) Antiquities, XIV,148.158. This reference, compared with the age to which Herod died (70 years and some months), is in contrast with the 37 years of reign beginning from BC 40. In fact its reign results concluded in BC 4, while its death is to place BC 1 - AD 1. It is a very important datum to start to resolve the problem of that void of about 5 year that seemed to be between the data of F. Josephus and those of the Gospels (included the date of the first Census happened when Quirinius was governor of Syria).

(9) Julius Caesar effects the reform of the calendar, establishing that the year begins with the 1st of January and that every four years there is one leap.

The Senate interprets it as “every three years”, so they were leap: BC  41 (correct after 4 years), 38, 35, 32, 29, 26, 23, 20, 17, 14 (9 irregular leap years).

Augustus, after BC 14 make to interrupt the succession of the leap years for 12 years in succession, 9 + 3. The 13th year was the first regular leap: BC 1, AUC 750.

All this is not written, it is not truly known which were the leap years, it is drawn for deduction because Plinius the Old has left writing, in Natural Histories, XVIII,211, that Augustus suspended the leap years «for twelve years in succession».

See [B] in the notes.

(10)

Velleius Paterculus tells that Augustus had been born under the consulship of Cicero and that the day before he was twenty years old, on the 22nd of September AUC 709, entered into consulship. He died under the consuls Sextus Pompeius and Sextus Apuleius, reported by Velleius, that corresponds to our year AD 14. He died (still Velleius reports it) in his 76th year of age. But, if AD 4 was AUC 754, AD 14 was AUC 764. And 764 - 709 = 55 years. Let's add the 20 that Augustus was about to turn when he became a consul and we get 75, not 76. Instead Svetonius reports that Augustus died in his 76th year of age, less 35 days: this means that he didn't reach his 76th year, that is he had turned 75 years yet, and that Velleius has added some days for "to make round figures". Cassius Dio has wanted subsequently to specify, that Augustus lived 75 years, 10 months and 26 days. But he wrote in Greek and he has interpreted to the way of the Greek mathematicians the numbers of Velleius and Svetonius, so adding, so adding 1 year more. The consulships of Augustus were 13 and, in consequence of before said, it is necessary to move all them before one year: BC 42, 32, 30, 29, 28, 27, 26, 25, 24, 23, 22, 4 and 1. He entered into these last two to follow close up his sons Lucius and Gaius, when they respectively began their training in the Forum (Svetonius, Life of Augustus, 26). Svetonius held important offices under the emperor Traianus (AD 98-117) and he wrote the lives of the first twelve emperors (Lives of the Caesars), up to Domitianus. He was in narrow contact with the emperor and he had access to the Record Office. Therefore he is very reliable; also when he copies from the preceding authors he has the possibility to specify their data or to correct them. Cassius Dio was very erudite, he wrote a vast Roman History that reaches AD 226. He used all the preceding works and also probably some calendars held by the Roman or Greek priests, in which the remarkable astronomic events had to be annotates. In fact he remembers several eclipses of sun or moon with a precision that we can verify according to our years of the Christian Era, even if something is not exact.

In fact, compared to the consuls, he moved forward 1 year the eclipses BC, has left in place that have occurred between 1 and 34 AD and moved forward 3 years later ones. He reported to the consuls, following the list that has come down to us. But had correctly the years AUC, as they were counted at least to Dionysius and Bede. Yet, despite the gap of 3 years, he managed to locate astronomical events as if the consuls were in the right place according to the Christian era. It's a bit 'a mystery. The work of Dion was clearly tampered with in the Middle Ages, with the addition of dating BC and AD, which came into use five centuries after, so it is possible that the eclipses have been upgraded.

(11) Jewish Antiquities, XIV,389; after having «faced winter journey» (Jewish War, I,281). These consuls are the ones we find for BC 40 in the consular list, but that really were reigning in BC 39.

(12) Jewish Antiquities, XIV,487-488. F. Josephus tells that this happened 27 years later «the bad luck that happened on the Jews to the time of Pompeius», but in reality the years are 26. Also in this case, the consuls are in the list for BC 37 but they were reigning, really , in BC 36.

It is to notice that F. Josephus sets this fact at the end of one Jewish sabbatical year, that can be only the one between October BC 38 and October BC 37. This corresponds with the first year of the 185th Olympiad, third month, in the day of the fast, but it would not be "27" years after the conquest of Pompeius, on the contrary "25". It is not clear as it has happened, nevertheless here Josephus has put together events distant two years between them.

Dio, that had probably picked up the news in connection to the Olympiads, has combined this event to the consuls of BC 35, reporting to Velleius. In trutht they should be those of BC 36 one (what are moved back of 1 year).

(13) F. Josephus, Jewish War, I,370; Jewish Antiquities, XV,109.121; Dio Cassius, Roman History, LI,1,1.

Velleius (Roman History, II,49 and 89) reports that the civil war in Rome, initiated in AUC 703, (78 years before AD 30, or rather in BC 48), ended in its 20th year, the following the battle of Atium one. Counting the first year and the last, the civil war ended in BC 29. Therefore the battle of Atium happened in BC 30. It was not fought in the 7th year of Herod, but in his 5th year. What has it happened? Josephus found the consulship of Octavianus Augustus (3rd) and Messalla Corvinus in the year a.U.c 723 and he thought that it was the year of the battle of Atium. Nicolas of Damask had not pointed out the Olympiad and Joseph pointed out the 187th because in it they were situated the consuls of this battle.

(14) F. Josephus reports two numeral of years as beginning of the restorations of the Temple: 15th year (Jewish War, I,401) e 18th year of Herod (Jewish Antiquities, XV,380), certainly because he had not found nothing writing according to this. Besides he doesn't offer cross-references to the Olympiads, to the consuls of Rome or to other.

If we depart from the beginning of the reign of Herod in Jerusalem and we count the 18 years, we reach the year 18-17 BC, as 1st year of the Temple. This coincides with what says the Gospel of John (John 2,20), that is 46 years not complete reckoning back from AD 29.

The jobs are not started during the sabbatical year, between October BC 17 and October BC 16, but around one year before.

(15) Jewish Antiquities, XV,341; XVI,136.

(16) Some medals of Varus there are to testify it, printed to Antiochias in the 25th, 26th and 27th year from the battle of Atium, that is up to BC 2-1.

(17) Jewish Antiquities, XVII,2. Herod made several wills (Jewish War I,573.600.646Jewish Antiquities, XVII,146). It seems that only the last, or rather some codicils contained in the wills, transmit also the power to Archelaos and Phillip.

Here it is necessary to re-examine the problem of the year of death of Herod the Great and of the beginning of the reign of his three sons, Antipas, Archelaos and Phillip.

After what we have said above, we can notice that Joseph F. (Jewish Antiquities, XVIII,32) has added 3 years to the reign of August (57 years, 6 months, 2 days) and around 3 years to the whole life of the emperor (77 years). This is due to that 3 consular years lacking in the reign of Tiberius, that, from the point of view of Josep, moved the death of August from AUC 764 to 767 (767 - 709 = 58 years around).

Then, also when he remembers that Archelaos, son of Herod, was sent in exile after 10 years of reign (J. A., XVIII,342-348), it means that in reality this happened after 7 years of reign, in AD 6, and that he had received the power in BC 1, that is when at the death of their father. Particularly Joseph tells a dream of Archelaos, in which 10 mature ears of wheat were devoured by oxen, dream that seemed important; it is probable that to strike has been the parallelism with Genesis 41,18-24, where the ears were 7 and not 10.

And when he says that another son of it Herod, Phillip, died in the year 20th of Tiberius, after 37 years of reign (J. A., XVIII,106), it means that in reality he died (in the 20th of Tiberius) after 34 years of reign, in AD 33; he had also taken therefore the power in BC 1, to the death of his father.

We can conclude that Herod died three months later the only possible eclipse of moon, that one of the night between 7th and the 8th of January BC 1 and that in that year the reign of the three sons began.

This confirm the possibility that Jesus Christ was born between the end of Bc 3 and the beginning of BC 2.

(18)As a necessary conclusion from the facts recited by Tacitus (Annales, III,48), and in view of Roman governmental principles, it is inferred that Quirinius was governor of Syria, not only AD 6-9, but also at the time of the war in Cilicia, probably during 3-2 BC, in succession to Varus (Zumpt, Mommsen, Schlier), then he returned in Rome and a triumph was decreed him.

(19) Jewish Antiquities, XVII,286.

(20)The Christmas, in West, is celebrated on the 25th of December beginning from the IV century, but the Annunciation has always been celebrated on the 25th of March. Some signs tell that Jesus Christ was born in the days around the 25th of December. Besides, since Jesus died and resuscitated in BC 33 (see [C] in the notes) and from the Gospels of Luke and John is deduces that his public life, initiated in BC 29, lasted 4 years and 3 months around, we can establish that he was born in BC 3, to Bethlehem of Judea. It was the 2rd year of the 193rd Olympiad that, on the 25th of December or on the 6th of January, corresponds to the AUC 752 (see [A] in the notes).

The point of departure of the Christian era, fixed by Dionisius Exiguus, results moved before of 2 year, to the beginning of AUC 751.

(21) Some days before Passover of BC 1, death of Herod, after having reigned 37 years beginning from the nomination to Rome and 34 beginning from when he taken possession in Jerusalem (Jewish War, I,665). On the 8th of January BC 1 there had been an eclipse of moon, that can be the one remembered in Jewish Antiquities, XVII,167.

Shortly before the death of Herod, F. Jopsephus tells about a "fast", but this concerned the high priest Matthias in one departed period; he tells about an eclipse of moon to which however some facts follow, and therefore some months (the notable Hebrews have been summoned twice in the stadium), before Herod dies.

The "fast" cannot have connected with the eclipse of moon.

A reference not to be forgotten is that, shortly after the death of Herod, his heirs met in Rome to ask Augustus for justice to everybody. The emperor gathered a council of important Roman men, he first installed in it his adoptive son Gaius Caesar to preside it, then he paid attention to the reasons of the heirs. Gaius Caesar could be present in Rome only in the first halves of BC 1.

Therefore, when Herod died, Jesus was around 1 year-old and 3 months. The Magi had come to adore himt when he was about one year old. How is this reconciled with the "two years" of the Gospel of Matthew, when he tells of the slaughter of the innocent ones? It is had to imagine that, with "from two years downward", he intended "from the beginning of the two years downward" that is "one turned year", according to the way of calculating the age in use in that time.

(22) Jewish Antiquities, XVIII,1-2.26.

(23) Being consuls Sextus Pompeius and Sextus Apuleius. It doesn't result that in the list of the consuls there has been some move between AD 1 and AD 23.

Therefore Augustus died in AUC 764.

Josephus wrote around AD 90 and he knew exactly what year AUC was. Counting back the consular years, Pompeius and Apuleius resulted reigning in AUC 767. Velleius Paterculus relates that Augustus was become consul to 20 in AUC 709, therefore: 767 - 709 = 58. 58 + 20 = 78 years not yet completed, 77 completed.

(24) [C] Passover, that is celebrated the day of the full moon of the first month of their calendar, according to the astronomic calculation was celebrated on Saturday 4th of April AD 33 (according to the calculation of Giovanni Massaro). In July AD 28 the year 15th of Tiberius were initiated, as it are deduced by the duration of its reign and of that of the other emperors. Jesus began therefore the public life, lasted 3 years and 3 months around, in January AD 30, in the year 16th of Tiberius.

The year AD 29 was a jubilee year, beginning from the autumn AD 28, or from the autumn AD 29. Jesus was «sent to proclaim the liberation to the prisoners..., to preach one year of grace of the Lord» (Luke 4,18-19). John the Baptist could have begun to the religious New Year's Day of AD 28, with the beginning of the jubilee year. Instead Jesus baptized next to John for about ten months (John 3,22-23; 4,35), then he began his preaching of the "year of grace" before the Easter AD 30. If the jubilee began in the autumn of the year 29, both the actions of Jesus took place coinciding with the jubilee year.

(25) On the 3rd of April AD 33 - year 19th of Tiberius: Jesus is condemned to the death of cross.

The three synoptic Gospels remember that between midday and three o'clock in the afternoon, while Jesus was in cross, the sun darkened.

Only Matthew tells also about an earthquake.  It was the day before the full moon, that of the Passover. The Moon was by the opposite part of the Earth than the Sun and she could not give rise to an eclipse of sun.  Luke and Mark tell about it just because it was an unusual event, but with simplicity, as of a historical fact. Since it happened, they could not forbear to report it.  On the 4th of April AD 33, on Saturday (as they unanimously report the four Gospels) the Passover was celebrated. Even a simple calculation of the weeks, passed since then to today, allows us to establish that the year when the Passover was celebrated on Saturdays 4th of April can be only this. It was AUC 783, 1st year of the 202ª Olympiad. The Christian writers that wrote subsequently about 4th year of the 202nd Olympiad have been being conditioned by the 3 years lacking in the reign of Tiberius.

On the 5th of April AD 33: Jesus' resurrection.

(26) Jewish Antiquities, XVIII,106. Josephus has added 3 years to the reign of Phillip (as he has done for August and Archelaos), that concluded in AD 33, 20th year of Tiberius. This means that his father Herod gave to him the power in BC 1.

(27)[D] After Tiberius, upsetting the consular traditions, had named 3 couples of consuls in less in comparison to the real years, these must be counted instead, with the result that the facts, from this moment onwards must be moved before of 3 years, up to AD 241 around. As compensation they are had to individualize and to eliminate 3 fictitious consular years between AD 241 (testimony of Censorinus) and AD 284 (Diocletianus).

In fact, in undefined period after Dionisius (AD 625) and Bede (8th century), the previous chronology was carefully examined and a way was found to bridge that gap of 3 consular years that resulted in aforesaid period. A list of consuls existed, attributed to bishop Hidatius, and this was modernized according the data that were accumulated till that moment.

(28) Bede, even with this, allows to intend that the year 1 of the Christian era are AUC 753, and that Tiberius had "lost" only 2 years and not 3.

(29) Jewish War, IV,1-83.

Giovanni Conforti,

with the collaboration of Giovanni Massaro

and Giorgio Faro

Updated on the 28th of September 2009